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سیاسی و روابط بین الملل::
حزب سیاسی
In multi-ethnic states, in particular post- colonial states (for example in sub-Saharan Africa), this has led to the forma- tion of political parties that reflect ethnic rather than economic coherence.
In part, this has been a consequence of the role played by certain agents, especially armies, but also by political parties or individuals, in the creation of the state.
To illus- trate, a state that has separate political parties in which candidates can con- test more or less open elections may be considered a "democracy" if one does not consider other criteria.
However, eight years after Suharto's fall, parties were still based on personalities rather than policies (for example, in the 2004 elections, karaoke competitions were one of the most important methods of gaining voter support), elite self-interest was more rather than less entrenched, the media was largely captive to political interests, votes were (literally) bought, and political parties were stopped from participating if their previous vote was below a prescribed level, while in order to be eligible to participate, their organization required representation of branches in half of the districts in half of the provinces.1 In this sense, Indonesia's elections only conformed to some democratic requirements, and were there- fore largely procedural rather than substantive.
The "review," or moderating function, is particularly noticeable in cases where a majority of the review body derives from an opposing ideology (usually manifested as a minor political party or coalition of parties) to the majority of the legislature.
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